Machievelli Biography Essay Example for Free

Machievelli Biography Essay Machiavelli lived during the Renaissance era of the Medieval times. In this time period many concepts and ideas were being reborn, including the Christian faith. He lived during a time period in which the people of the time thought of the Black Plague as a symptom of judgment upon the sinfulness of the land. These same people began to scourge themselves in order to express their sorrow and therefore remove God’s judgment laid upon them. Although Machiavelli lived long after the fall of the Roman Empire, he lived in an Italy that had evolved into a war-torn battleground between the city state dynasties. There were conflicts between the French and Spanish for the control of land. Machiavelli lived in a time of growing political powers and a Christian community that was adapting and changing according to the claims of the Reformers. Machiavelli had a goal: he sought to create a dichotomy between ethical Christianity and the Ethical demands of political rule. The 15th and 16th century world focused on theologically reforming the Church. Many reformers of the time and before Machiavelli’s life, including the 14th century reformer John Wycliffe, wrote on how the papacy of the Church had grown far too powerful. During Machiavelli’s life St. Francis was teaching the commoners about Jesus, and the commoners began relating to Christ. The Church was not only effected by the reformers and the teachings of St. Francis, but it was also effected by itself; it was hurting itself. The church fought against the reformers, condemning them as heretics; the church was threatened by the words of reform. Machiavelli lived among the Christians and like many of the reformers he was seeking a reform between the Church and the State. Essentially, Machiavelli writes to prove that being a moral ruler and a person are two separate ideas, in the case of extreme circumstances and, like Luther, there are two kingdoms independent of each other. Machiavelli probably wouldve been considered a think tank of his time and he believed that a ruler, or anyone may publicly state that they are Christians yet exhibit no real conviction. In the eleventh chapter of The Prince Machiavelli argued that Ecclesiastical principalities were to be desired because the people who inhabited them were governed by their own religious laws. Machiavelli viewed these laws as tools, tools to prevent unruly citizens within the principalities rather than to enforce outside rules. Machiavelli idealizes an idea completely different from the church, that politics is something that deals with facts and not abstracts, that it is a challenge to the notion of both Pope Gregory VII and Pope Innocent III’s â€Å"Divine Right to rule.†3 Machiavelli realized that the divine right to rule theory is nothing but a religious idea that does not work with the present state of man. Machiavelli also understood that human corruption and sin is an unending prob lem that rulers need to deal with. Machiavelli continues by suggesting that being a moral leader does not mean that one is a good leader as good leadership leads to order, stability, and public good. He claimed that when order, stability, and public good are threatened a ruler cannot risk limiting their actions by piety or virtue. Machiavelli believed that morals stood in the way of success, that rulers need to learn how to not be good, and be willing to kill. While the religious leaders saw Machiavelli as non-Christian and destructive, Machiavelli states that leaders need to administer necessary evils in efforts to maintain order and stability within their rule, that humans can be predicted through reason. The Church saw his political agenda as lacking in Christian ethics; however, his political reform lines up with Christian thinkers and with Christian ethics of generosity, compassion, and even the golden rule as we see in Saint Augustine’s and St. Benedict’s writings. An initial consideration of Machiavellis thoughts on generosity, we notice that he believes it is good to be considered a generous person, but that it is dangerous to do so. Although sounding contradictory to Christianity, Machiavellis reasoning lies in the Christian idea of doing the most good for as many people as possible. Machiavelli argues that being generous requires that the ruler imposes new ways of revenue collection and therefore make his subjects hate him and lead to a guarantee that no one will think well of him.1 Machiavelli makes a similar case for compassion, in that it is better to be seen as cruel then it is to be viewed as loving, if necessary. He asserts that as the head of an army a ruler needs to â€Å"be prepared to be thought cruel.† The same Christian idea can be used to explain his argument as before. In the words of Star Trek’s Spock, â€Å"the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few†. Machiavelli states that its more compassionate to impose harshness on a few rather than make use of compassion and risk chaos to take place.2 If we look back to St. Augustine’s The City of God 4 we learn that rulers and people are dominated by their own selfish lust for power, whereas in the City of God, which Luther also makes notions of in his Doctrine of The Two Kingdoms, people serve one another in charity. Under this assumption we see that men do not serve out of charity, but rather serve in a situation of do unto others as you would have done to yourself. Perhaps Machiavelli agreed with this view of Christianity. Machiavelli’s ruler never commits an act that they would not have done to themselves. I think the Machiavellian ruler loves their neighbor as much as themselves. Machiavelli sees the political field as a place for necessary evil. He believes, out of love, that some evil must take place in order to benefit the most people. Machiavelli saw the world he lived in as a two kingdom place, like Luther and St. Augustine did. He viewed human history for what it was, not what it could be; he saw people as evil and sick. Machiavelli’s picture of human history took into account the human equation, that we are sinful and therefore predictable, which he believes will lead to a better understanding of the future.

Effective Intervention Reduce Alcohol Consumption In College Students Nursing Essay

Effective Intervention Reduce Alcohol Consumption In College Students Nursing Essay Heavy alcohol consumption among college students remains a concern across colleges and universities in the United States. Approximately 80% of all college students drink, including nearly 60% of students ages 18 to 20 (Johnston, OMalley, Bachman, Schulenberg, 2008). Even more troubling, 40.1% of full-time college students underage for legal drinking engage in binge drinking and 16.6% of students engage in heavy drinking (National Survey on Drug Use and Health [NSDUH], 2006). Binge drinking is defined as consuming five or more drinks on the same occasion on at least 1 day in the past 30 days, bringing a persons blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 or above (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism [NIAAA], 2004;NSDUH, 2006). Consuming five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of 5 or more days in the past 30 days is considered heavy drinking (NSDUH, 2006). All heavy alcohol users are also binge alcohol users. Many colleges and universities have implemented numerous initiatives ranging from enhanced enforcement to deferred community-wide celebratory events, but with little or no success (Turner, Perkins, Bauerle, 2008). College counselors and health education centers have been the main source of counseling for students who consume alcohol. Students have the opportunity to meet with counselors to discuss their alcohol use and their interest in moderating alcohol consumption and receive personalized normative feedback, advice, and behavioral strategies for avoiding alcohol-related harm (Barnett, Murphy, Colby, Monti, 2007). Although this traditional method is still used by counselors, advances in technology are allowing counselors to use new and innovative methods to educate students on the dangers of excessive alcohol consumption. Key programs include wireless devices, e-interventions, and cybercounseling. Wireless devices provide counselors with an interactive method of reducing drinking and alcohol consequences in college students. They range from mobile devices such as cell phones and handheld computers to audience response technology, or clickers (Bernhardt et al., 2009; Killos, Hancock, Wattenmaker McGann, Keller, 2010; Labrie, Hummer, Huchting, Neighbors, 2009; LeGreco, Hess, Lederman, Schuwerk, LaValley, 2010; Turner et al., 2008). Compared to one-on-one counseling sessions, easy accessibility and the ability to assess a group of students during one session are advantages of using this intervention model. The use of such technology varies, but the outcome is the same- providing fast and accurate assessments about college students own drinking habits and the drinking habits of their peers (Bernhardt et al., 2009; Killos et al., 2010; Labrie et al., 2009; LeGreco et al., 2010; Turner et al., 2008). Mobile devices would alleviate the need for pen and paper assessments. The Handheld Assisted Network Diary (HAND) is an effective and valid method of evaluating daily drinking among college students (Bernhardt et al., 2009). Rather than counselors expecting a student to complete a daily assessment and have them return it to them after 30 days, counselors can have students record this same data on mobile devices. Although more students are likely to complete a pen and paper assessment than HAND, Bernhardt et al. (2009) found no significant difference between the two methods when students recorded their total drinks, number of drinking days, and drinks per drinking day. This suggests that those students who did complete HAND were comfortable with using the device and provided accurate information similar to those who completed pen and paper assessments. The difference in completion rates between the two methods is due to the design of HAND; students have a particular time-frame to comp lete the days assessment and are locked out of their devices at a predetermined time. This inhibits students from completing missed assessments. The disadvantage of students self-reporting data in the HAND should not diminish its advantage of being able to be completed daily with little deviation from a students active lifestyle (Bernhardt et al., 2009). Although HAND may sound promising, it should be noted that Bernhardt et al. developed this program and any of their published results may be biased. Audience response technology, commonly known as clickers, is a second type of wireless device used by counselors and health educators. Clickers are used in group interactive-feedback alcohol education sessions to decrease students perceived norms of how much other students drink (Killos et al., 2010; Labrie et al., 2009). During these sessions, a counselor or health educator would ask a group of students a series of multiple choice questions pertaining to their own drinking habits and their perception of their peers drinking habits. Students can then simultaneously respond and have their answers recorded and displayed to the group in graphical form. Killos et al. (2010) found that students who attend at least one of these sessions are more likely to believe that the typical student drinks less alcoholic beverages than perceived; those who do not attend such sessions are more likely to over-perceive the amount of alcohol a typical student consumes. This demonstrates that group clicker sessions are effective in positively influencing students beliefs about their peers drinking behaviors (Killos et al., 2010). Clicker sessions are practical because they can be designed for any variety of student groups including resident assistants, freshmen orientation groups, and high-risk drinkers such as Greeks and athletes (Killos et al., 2010). Labrie et al. (2009) examined the effectiveness of one type of group intervention, brief live interactive normative group intervention (BLING), on collegiate athletes. During a one-month follow-up after the clicker session, athletes showed evidence of changes in perceived norms, leading to changes in their own drinking habits; no further changes were seen at a two-month follow-up (Labrie et al., 2009). This suggests that clicker sessions are a fast and effective model for educating students. Clicker sessions have expanded to include two-way communication models promoting health and encouraging dialogue, rather than the original one-way communication from facilitator to student. Lets Talk About It, for example, is a simulation game engaging students about decision-making and drinking on a college campus (LeGreco et al., 2010). It was created to generate, identify, and challenge the social norms that students utilize to construct and reconstruct reality through narrative sharing, facilitated learning, and inter-student dialogue. A scenario prompt about going to a party with a friend was given to a group of students and they were asked what they would do in a particular situation (e.g. your drunk best friend is about to leave with a boy she just met). LeGreco et al. (2010) concluded that facilitators can encourage students to complete the story of a night of drinking, filling the gaps with personal experiences, choices, and narrative details by utilizing incomplete scenario s. The advantage of using programs like this is that simulations can provide a safe place for individuals to critically examine their more risky behaviors and experiment with different possibilities for healthy changes (LeGreco et al., 2010). Wireless devices are intended to expose the truth about perceived norms of college drinking. Although the studies mentioned above have shown the effectiveness of these devices, particular limitations cannot go unnoted. The major concern is that these programs only evaluated the short-term effects of the devices, whether it was 30 days or 2 months. More research is needed to examine any maintained changes and long-term effects of using wireless devices as an alcohol intervention in college students. Another concern is attendance and participation rates. During the clicker sessions, the response results that are presented back to the students could be misleading if a handful of students do not respond to any of the questions. Since this is a device that is intended for rapid responses, facilitators would be spending unnecessary time trying to figure out which clickers did not answer any of the questions. E-interventions Computer programs are changing the way college students are learning about the dangers of heavy drinking. Aside from changing perceived norms, these programs are increasing students readiness to change their drinking behaviors (Chiauzzi, Green, Lord, Thum, Goldstein, 2005; Moore, Soderquist, Werch, 2005; Murphy, Dennhardt, Skidmore, Martens, McDevitt-Murphy, 2010; Walters, Miller, Chiauzzi, 2005). Electronic interventions, or e-interventions, are directing students away from face-to-face counseling sessions and more towards self-education with personalized feedback and preventative interventions (Chiauzzi et al., 2005; Doumas Andersen, 2009; Murphy et al., 2010). Counselors may be wary about assessing students drinking behaviors outside of a traditional office visit. Moore et al. (2005) addressed this as they studied the feasibility and efficacy of a binge drinking prevention intervention for college students via the internet. Students were sent either four email-based newsletters or four identical print-based newsletters in the mail. In each web newsletter, there was a link to a short process-evaluation survey. Mail newsletters had a hard copy of the survey that would be mailed back. A greater percentage of students receiving the email-based newsletter completed the process-evaluation surveys than did the students receiving the print-based newsletter (Moore et al., 2005). This could be explained by many reasons, including easy accessibility and convenience. Students who are receiving the newsletter via email are already online and can simply click on the links; the other students would have to take the time to complete the surveys and mail t hem back. Interestingly, Moore et al. (2005) observed that the greatest results in decreasing the number of drinks per occasion and the number of occasions feeling drunk were seen in binge drinkers. Students and counselors alike would benefit from using an email-based intervention. Students are comfortable with internet communications and it is fast and convenient; for counselors, the intervention is cheaper than printing materials, assessment results are easy to enter, and there is a higher response rate from students (Moore et al., 2005). E-interventions are different from all other types of interventions because they rapidly give students personalized feedback (Bersamin, Paschall, Fearnow-Kenney, Wyrick, 2007; Chiauzzi et al., 2005; Doumas Haustveit, 2008; Doumas Andersen, 2009; Murphy et al., 2010; Thombs et al., 2007; Walters et al., 2005). These programs provide students with personalized information as part of the intervention or the intervention itself. Most programs rely heavily on educational content, providing text information about the physical, social, and behavioral effects of alcohol in the form of interactive games and quizzes (Walters et al., 2005). Electronic Checkup to Go (e-CHUG) is a 15-minute intervention designed to reduce high-risk drinking by providing personalized feedback and normative data regarding drinking and its consequences. High-risk students who had access to e-CHUG reduced their weekly drinking quantity by approximately 30% compared to a 14% increase in students who did not have access to e-CHUG (Doumas Andersen, 2009). There was also a 30% reduction in reported alcohol-related problems for high-risk students in the e-CHUG group in comparison with an 84% increase in reported alcohol-related problems for high-risk students in the control group (Doumas Andersen, 2009). MyStudentBody (MSB) provides students with tailored motivational feedback about high-risk drinking according to gender (Chiauzzi et al., 2005). Both students having access to MSB and those who did not have access were asked to complete 4 weekly 20-minute sessions. The respective websites was available for 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, so students had flexible access. Chiauzzi et al. (2005) saw a significant decrease in the number of binge episodes in a typical week among all participants and a rapid decrease in the average consumption among persistent heavy drinkers who had access to MSB. Thombs et al. (2007) were the first to study normative feedback on the basis of a known blood-alcohol concentration. At night in the residence halls, freshmens BAC would be measured and recorded. The next day, these students were directed to a website where they found their BAC measure from the night before, the average BAC of the residence hall, and interactive activities. The results, however, were unexpected. BAC levels were lower in the residence hall that just had access to their own BAC level (Thombs et al., 2007). This could have been due to a number of reasons. The most practical reason, though, is that some students may have either increased their drinking on some nights or avoided providing data on nights they did not drink (Thombs et al., 2007). These automated interventions reflect the contributions of mailed self-help and in-person approaches. However, the advantage of the computer is the ability to provide much more information upon demand (Walters et al., 2005). As new programs are being developed, some questions remain unanswered. Although there is no clear relationship between the length of the intervention and its effectiveness (Walters et al., 2005), it is still unclear as to what type of information makes a difference and which approach is most relevant to college students. E-interventions have given counselors and students much to enjoy, but there is evidence that computer-based interventions are not as effective as in-person interventions with a counselor (Barnett et al., 2007; Carey, Henson, Carey, Maisto, 2009; Croom et al., 2009). These studies compared Alcohol 101 Plus with traditional brief motivational interventions (BMI). Students participating in the BMI were found to reduce drinking and related consequences (Carey et al., 2009). Similarly, at a 12-month follow-up from the initial intervention, students using a computer-delivered intervention were consuming a greater number of drinks per occasion than at baseline (Barnett et al., 2007). E-interventions focus on preventative measures and providing personalized feedback. Throughout the literature on these programs, researchers have noted a few limitations. The most commonly noted limitation is the inability to generalize the effectiveness of e-interventions. The students that are more likely to use such programs are those who report binge drinking and heavy drinking. Also, some students may find this type of intervention adequate, while others would prefer meeting with a counselor and work collaboratively on how to reduce their drinking habits. A second limitation is similar to that of the wireless devices. These studies on e-interventions only examined immediate and short-term effects of the program on alcohol reduction. Research with longer follow-ups would be ideal to examine the consistency of the students changed behaviors. Third, consideration should be given to the willingness of the university to invest in these computer programs. Lastly, concern arises with t he possibility of computers and the programs either malfunctioning or crashing. This could result in delayed feedback for students and loss of data for counselors. Cybercounseling Little, if any, research has examined the use of cybercounseling in reducing college drinking. Cybercounseling is the practice of providing professional counseling and information to clients when both are in separate or remote locations and they utilize electronic means to communicate over the Internet (Maples Han, 2008). E-mail, electronic bulletin boards, and chat rooms are all forms of cybercounseling. Counselors and students alike see the disadvantages of cybercounseling as outweighing the advantages. Maples Hans (2008) make it clear that communication by e-mail could pose a number of potential ethical concerns regarding the protection of students privacy. For instance, email accounts are prone to being hacked and the information between counselor and student could be compromised. Also, the absence of verbal and nonverbal cues in cybercounseling makes miscommunication between counselor and students more common (Maples Han, 2008). Proper assessment and interventions become non-existent when there is uncertainty about what is being said. This is especially true for counselors. Counselors are prone to use informal language while instant messaging with students; students are more likely to decrease their perceptions of the counselor as an expert and trustworthy (Haberstroh, 2010). Lastly, instant messaging is time consuming, especially if the student, the counselor, or both are slow typers (Haberstroh, Parr, Bradley, Morgan-Fleming, Gee, 2008). This creates a time-lag between responses that can lead to being distracted and slowing the pace of the session. Summary Excessive college drinking remains a national concern across all college and universities. Technology has made it possible for counselors to expand on the models of interventions used to educate college students and prevent heavy drinking. A few of these new interventions include wireless devices such as cell phones, smart phones, and handheld computers, clickers, and computer programs. Each method provides a unique, interactive experience for both the counselor and the student. Wireless devices are typically used to expose the truth about perceived norms of college drinking, while e-interventions are more focused on preventative measures and providing personalized feedback. With all technology, there exist flaws. One such flaw is seen in cybercounseling. Too many potential problems exist that the disadvantages of cybercounseling outweigh the advantages. Conclusion Technology is rapidly advancing and colleges are trying to keep up with it so that it may provide fresh solutions to existing problems such as alcohol consumption among college students. The programs that are available today vary in their purpose and their efficacy. Counselors need to consider what they want to use the intervention model for and then further research how they can get the most out of that particular intervention. E-interventions are the most popular alcohol prevention interventions; thousands of colleges and universities have implemented such programs among freshmen orientation groups and collegiate athletes. The reason for its popularity is that it is inexpensive, fast, and easy to use. Since an array of computer programs and software already exist, researchers today should be focusing on how to use these programs in the most efficient way possible. This includes studying the required length of the intervention to be effective and when the best time would be to use s uch programs.

Huckleberry Finn in High Schools :: essays papers

Huckleberry Finn in High Schools High Schools in the United States should not ban The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. This book is one of the most important components of American literature in our libraries today, it throws the reader into a time when slavery was lawful and accepted, and gives the reader a new perspective on slavery in general. Until civil rights groups can come up with a better argument than the word â€Å"nigger† creating a â€Å"hostile work environment†(Zwick) it should not be taken off the required reading list of any High School in the country. Every one hundred years dialects change and what is considered â€Å"politically correct†, or socially acceptable, changes. â€Å"David Bradley argues that ‘if we'd eradicated the problem of racism in our society, Huckleberry Finn would be the easiest book in the world to teach’† (Zwick, Jim. â€Å"Should Huckleberry Finn Be Banned?†). If we, as a nation, make it a point to rule out all books that could possibly offend students, then every hundred years or so our library of American Literature will be completely different. Even today, modern day authors use vulgar language, lurid sexual content, and racial slurs to get their point across. If The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is taken off of required reading lists across the country, then that could create a never-ending cycle of books being taken off of school shelves every time words and ideas become unacceptable. If this is the way that American society is turning then something must be done, and the Superintendents, Deans, and Principals of every High School around the country must take it upon themselves to do it because the students will not. The people who are trying to ban The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn are only trying to block out a part of American history that they would just as soon be forgotten, but every part of American history needs to be dealt with and accepted by everyone at a young age. Trying to shield students from any important part of history is a crime within itself. Hannibal, Missouri is a prime example of this type of crime. Every year they have a citywide celebration of Mark Twain, but they do not celebrate The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn or The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson nor do they teach it in their schools. Best stated by Shelly Fisher Fishkin, the theater company in Hannibal â€Å"was upholding a long American tradition of making slavery and its legacy and blacks themselves invisible†(Zwick, Jim.

The Relationship between a Parent and Their Child in Khaled Hosseini´s

In Khaled Hosseini’s novel â€Å"The Kite Runner†, he illustrates how he develops the characters through their words and actions. Being the main character, Amir is faced with the challenge of gaining his father’s affection/approval because he is Baba’s son. However, how Amir obtains his father’s affection/approval was through immoral ways. Baba on the other hand, had trouble showing his fatherly affection to Amir which causes bitterness within their father/son relationship. In this novel, we will explore how the relationship between a parent and a child is shown through their yearning of affection and how it can affect how one would be in the future. Baba is the most important person to Amir because he is Amir’s role model and world. How Baba express his feelings of being a parent is shown through his interactions and speeches with Amir. In Baba’s eyes, he finds it hard to believe that Amir is his son because â€Å"if I hadn’t seen the doctor pull him †¦ never believe he’s my son† (23). Amir cannot defend himself and is often in the position of receiving assistance from Hassan. Growing up, Baba never had to rely on someone else when he got pushed around from the neighborhood kids. He always showed them up, but with Amir, he can’t even defend himself without Hassan’s help. Baba’s disappoint towards Amir not being able to defend himself furthers their already distant relationship. While creating his name, Baba had married a highly educated woman who was regarded as one of Kabul’s most respected, beautiful and virtuous lady. For Baba, it was fine to be married to a poet, â€Å"but fathering a son who preferred burying his face in poetry books to hunting †¦ well, that wasn’t how [he] had envisioned it,† (19-20). Baba doesn’t approve of Amir reading... ...the issue of winning Baba’s love because he was the legitimate son. The importance of having a healthy parent/child relationship is so that the child grows up to be in the right path and not regret anything. For Amir, that did not happen because Baba was hardly ever there for Amir. Hosseini displays the two developed characters emotions through their actions and words of how they express their father/son relationship. The relationship between a parent and a child is important because it helps develops the child’s character of how they will be in the future. The more care and affection that is given, the better the child understand that he/she is being loved. For Amir and Baba’s parent/child relationship, they had started off on the wrong foot, but eventually it had gotten better as the story progress. Therefore, making the child and parents relationship better.

Patriot Essay -- essays research papers

Martin, a veteran of the French and Indian War, thinks of himself as a battle-weary peacenik (his eldest son joins the army against his wishes), but if he believes in liberating the colonies from the tyranny of King George III, he believes even more fervently in smiting the holy bejesus out of the soldiers who have torn his family apart. That these aristocratic oppressors happen to be the same redcoats who are fighting to quash the American Revolution is, shall we say, a matter of the highest moral convenience. Written by Robert Rodat (''Saving Private Ryan'') and directed by the heavy-tromping blockbuster maestro Roland Emmerich (''Independence Day,'' ''Godzilla''), ''The Patriot'' is set in fields, forests, homes, and backwaters, and there's something at once canny and reductive about the way that it personalizes the bloody birth of a nation. The filmmakers know that the last thing contemporary audiences need is another square-shouldered Classics Illustrated lecture that regurgitates the righteous and idealistic mythology of Why We Fought the British. At the same time, I'm not sure that I want my history dragged into the colonial trenches by a filmmaker like Roland Emmerich. ''The Patriot'' has some fierce and exciting moments, and it's held together by Gibson's haggard slow-burn charisma (he talks in his ''low'' voice), but the movie is also demagogic and crude. It's a fife-and-drum ''Gladiator'' without elegance -- the Revolutionary War turned into a big, hammerheaded s...

Crucible: Salem Witch Trials and Elizabeth

The Crucible: Elizabeth Proctor â€Å"Let them that never lied die now to keep their souls† (1353). This quote, spoken by John Proctor, in the Crucible represents what the Salem Witch Trials were about. The Crucible, written by Aurthur Miller, was a playwright based in the 1600’s of the Salem Witch Trials in Province, Massachusetts. The Salem Witch Trials were during the time of McCarthyism; McCarthyism suggested people were guilty without hard proof. Elizabeth Proctor was a character in the Crucible that stood by her husband John, even through the lies, miscommunications, and even his death. Elizabeth was a typical housewife, and honest women who had many mixed emotions about her marriage. Elizabeth Proctor was a Puritan housewife that tended to her husband and children. She never showed anyone of her emotions. Elizabeth was all was content and kept to herself. She also tried to please John every chance she could. â€Å"I took great care† (1292). This quote taken from the Crucible was Elizabeth making her husband stew after a long day. She wanted the stew to be up to standards so that John would be happy with her. In Act II Elizabeth had been accused of sending her spirit out. â€Å"I will fear nothing. Tell the children I had gone to visit someone sick† (1307). The line represented here was spoken by Elizabeth after Herrick and Cheever had taken her away to the court to be questioned. Being a good housewife and mother she feels the need to keep her children happy and not worried. She tells John not to worry because she knows she is innocent and she â€Å"will fear nothing† (1307). Elizabeth Proctor was John Proctors wife and their children’s mother who looked after everyone else before herself making her a typical housewife. Honesty was a key trait to Elizabeth Proctors personality. Elizabeth had a good heart and never told a lie. When she and John were discussing Abigail and the girls, they knew they were lying about seeing the devil and being with the devil. Elizabeth Proctor says to John â€Å"I think you must go to Salem, John; I think so. You must tell them it is a fraud† (1293). Knowing that the girls are frauds could potentially jeopardize anyone in the community if they didn’t tell anyone. She is an honest person who does not want to keep anything hidden. â€Å"I do not judge you. The magistrate sits in your heart that judges you. I never thought you but a good man, John only somewhat bewildered† (1295). Elizabeth was honest toward the man she loved. She knew that he was a good man inside and that no matter what would happen to him that she couldn’t be the one to judge his wrong doings. Elizabeth was an honest individual with good morals. `Last, Elizabeth had many mixed emotions about her marriage. Elizabeth and John Proctor were in a silent war so to say. John had had an affair with Abigail and to get back at John, Abigail had said Elizabeth Proctor had been with the devil. Elizabeth was furious when she found out about Johns affair. Elizabeth screams, â€Å"Then go and tell her she’s a whore. Whatever promise she may sense-break it. John, break it† (1299). Elizabeth had told John to tell Abigail this. Elizabeth was hurt and felt betrayed by John, and by telling this to Abigail I think it would have brought Elizabeth a sense of pride. Elizabeth felt guilty about never showing her emotions to John. In this quote, â€Å"John, I counted myself so plain, so poorly made, no honest love could come to me, Suspicion kissed you when I did; I never knew how I should say my love. It were a cold house I kept! † (1295), she expresses that love could never find its way to her. When she finally found John she was happy but never showed how happy she was with him. John was going to be killed in the end and he knew it. Judge Danforth wanted John to sign over his name that he himself was a witch. John Proctor refused and said that he would not sign away his name for something that wasn’t true. When John was taken away to be hanged, Elizabeth cried and was so sad. They, as a couple, finally had a chance to talk about their love for each other. â€Å"He have his goodness now. God forbid I take it from him† (1358). Elizabeth Proctor spoke about her husband in this quote. He finally did something honorable and lived up to the person she knew he was and she didn’t want to take that away from him. John and Elizabeth Proctor had a confusing marriage, but in the end they figured each other out. Elizabeth Proctor was a women in the Crucible that was honorable and trustworthy. She made sure her husband died with respect and that she, herself, was also respected. She was a good mother to her children, a good housewife to her family, and learned to be a loving women to her husband John. Elizabeth Proctor may have had mixed emotions about her marriage, but she was honest and a housewife that would do anything to make her family happy and her husband proud.

Sexual Offences Act 2003

One of the driving forces behind the creation of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 was the low conviction rate on rapists. In 1999 9,008 rape cases were reported and only 1 in 13 resulted in a conviction . Within this essay I will discuss whether or not the changes introduced by the Sexual Offences Act 2003 add greater clarity to the area of rape. In order to fully understand this question one must first define rape. The standard definition of rape is â€Å"unlawful sexual intercourse with a woman who at the time of intercourse does not consent . I say standard because with each Sexual Act the definition of rape has changed in some way. When rape was first introduced as a statutory offence in the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 it simply stated that ‘it is a felony to rape a woman . ’ The Sexual Offences Act 2003 now defines rape as the ‘intentional penetration of the vagina, anus, or mouth of another person who does not consent . ’ Each Sexual Offences Act attempts to further clarify the area of rape. The main change in the Sexual Offences Act 2003 has to deal with the definition and the area of consent. The Sexual Offences Act of 1956 elaborates to a great extent on the area of rape; it goes more in depth where rape is concerned than the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. The Sexual Offences Act 1956 states: â€Å"Rape of a man or woman (1)It is an offence for a man to rape a woman or another man. (2)A man commits rape if— (a)he has sexual intercourse with a person (whether vaginal or anal) who at the time of the intercourse does not consent to it; and (b)at the time he knows that the person does not consent to the intercourse or is reckless as to whether that person consents to it. 3)A man also commits rape if he induces a married woman to have sexual intercourse with him by impersonating her husband. (4)Subsection (2) applies for the purpose of any enactment. † Like Offences Against the Person Act 1861, this act also failed to clarify or to give further direction on the matter of consent. Thus, it was still up to the â€Å"judiciary to determine the constituent e lements and develop the factors that might vitiate an apparent consent. † In 1975 the case of DPP v Morgan prompted Parliament to amend this act in order to attempt to clarify the area of consent. The amendment to this act is found in the Sexual Offences Act 1976. This act states: (1)For the purposes of section 1 of the M1Sexual Offences Act 1956 (which relates to rape) a man commits rape if— (a)he has unlawful sexual intercourse with a woman who at the time of the intercourse does not consent to it; and (b)at that time he knows that she does not consent to the intercourse or he is reckless as to whether she consents to it; and references to rape in other enactments (including the following provisions of this Act) shall be construed accordingly. 2)It is hereby declared that if at a trial for a rape offence the jury has to consider whether a man believed that a woman was consenting to sexual intercourse, the presence or absence of reasonable grounds for such a belief is a matter to which the jury is to have regard, in conjunction with any other relevant matters, in considering whether he so believed. † In the case of DPP v Morgan the husband invited three friends o ver to have intercourse with his wife. He told them that she might be acting like she was resisting but she was actually just role playing. Though the wife struggled against them they still had sex with her because they were under the belief that she had consented. They were tried with rape. The judge’s remark to the jury simply was if you believe that the wife did not consent then the defendants belief that she did indeed consent is not a defense. They were all convicted of rape. Due to the confusion caused by this case section 1(2) (as shown above) of the Sexual Offences Act 1976 was created. This gives a definition of mens rea in regards to consent . Although this act tried to further clarify consent and the meaning of rape there were still some tweaking that had to be done to it. For instance it defines rape but it doesn’t establish the need to show that there was â€Å"force, fear, or fraud affecting the woman’s consent. † The Jury was just instructed to give consent its ordinary meaning. That being stated this act also failed to provide a legal definition of consent. All of these changes were made in the Sexual Offences Act 2003. The Sexual Offences Act 2003 states: â€Å" Rape (1) A person (A) commits an offence if— a) he intentionally penetrates the vagina, anus or mouth of another person (B) with his penis, (b) B does not consent to the penetration, and (c) A does not reasonably believe that B consents. (2) Whether a belief is reasonable is to be determined having regard to all the circumstances, including any steps A has taken to ascertain whether B consents. (3) Sections 75 and 76 apply to an offence under this section. (4) A person guilty of an offence under this section is liable, on conviction on indictment, to imprisonment for life. † Although these changes were made does it actually add clarity to the area of rape? The first change that must be mentioned is the inclusion of oral as a point where penetration can occur. This was included because it was decided that oral sex was just â€Å"as abhorrent demeaning and traumatizing a violation and equally, if not more psychologically harmful than vaginal and anal rape . † Secondly, section 1(1) of this act makes rape gender specific. Since it states that penetration must be done with a penis then only males can commit rape. Thus, women cannot legally be charged with rape but if they act as an accomplice of a male rapist then they can be charged with â€Å"causing a person to engage in sexual activity †. Although this section shows that a woman cannot be a rapist section 79(3) which state, â€Å"references to a part of the body include references to a part surgically constructed (in particular, through gender reassignment surgery), † is a deviation of this rule this shows that if it is a transsexual, who committed penile surgery then she can be charged with rape, for rape is the penetration of the penis, whether it is a surgically constructed penis or a natural one. It does not matter the gender of who is raped or that of the rapist . Those with surgically constructed vaginas can also be raped as per R v Matthews . Thirdly, the actus reus for rape is no longer unlawful sexual intercourse. In the previous Sexual Acts 1956 and 1976 unlawful intercourse was the actus reus. Unlawful meant sexual intercourse outside of marriage. This was discovered to be a common law action as per R v R , and was abolished. Now a husband can rape his wife. The actus reus for rape according to the Sexual Offences Act 2003 is penetration . In accordance with this act in order for it to be rape several elements must be meet. Firstly, it has to be proven that the vagina, anus or mouth was intentionally penetrated by the defendant. The mens rea for rape is the intentional penetration. Once penetrated it is thought that intent is there unless the penetration is minimal. In that case it can be argued that the defendant only â€Å"meant to stay on the outside† . Intoxication cannot be used as a defense as per R v Woods , due to the fact that rape is still a crime of basic intent. Before this act the actus reus for rape was unlawful intercourse (outside marriage)it is now penetration. Section 79(2) defines penetration as â€Å"a continuing act from entry to withdrawal ,† as per Cooper v Schaub . For it to be penetration full entry is not necessary. Thus, the vagina includes the vulva this is explained in section 79(9), which simply states that â€Å"Vagina includes vulva † As per R v Tarmohammed the penis should be removed if at any point consent is withdrawn. This brings me to my next point that of consent. Secondly, it has to be determined whether or not the victim gave consent. Section 74 defines consent as â€Å" a person freely agreeing by choice and who has the freedom and capacity to make that choice . The phrase capacity to make a choice is a tricky phrase especially if one is dealing with a person with a mental disorder. To help clarify this in the Offences related to persons with a mental disorder section 30(2) is used. This states: â€Å"B is unable to refuse if – He lacks the capacity to choose whether to agree to the touching (w hether because he lacks sufficient understanding of the nature or possible consequences of what is being done, or for any other reason), or he is unable to communicate such a choice to A. Therefore if one does not understand the complete nature of the act then they cannot consent as per R v Williams . More clarification on whether or not a woman has consented is given by sections 75 and 76 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. These sections each contain a presumption about consent. Section 75 contain evidential presumption which may be challenged by the defendant, whereas, section 76 cannot be challenged as it is conclusive presumptions . The evidential burden is not a burden of proof; it simply means that the defendant needs to provide some evidence that supports his case. Section 75 states: â€Å"(1) If in proceedings for an offence to which this section applies it is proved— (a) that the defendant did the relevant act, (b) that any of the circumstances specified in subsection (2) existed, and (c) that the defendant knew that those circumstances existed, † If (a), (b), and (c) are proved by the prosecution then it can be assumed that the victim did not consent to the act nor did the offender reasonably believe that he had consent. If the judge does not think that the evidence is enough to raise an issue then the jury is instructed to look at section 75(2) . This states: â€Å"The circumstances are that— a) any person was, at the time of the relevant act or immediately before it began, using violence against the complainant or causing the complainant to fear that immediate violence would be used against him; (b) any person was, at the time of the relevant act or immediately before it began, causing the complainant to fear that vio lence was being used, or that immediate violence would be used, against another person; (c) the complainant was, and the defendant was not, unlawfully detained at the time of the relevant act; (d) the complainant was asleep or otherwise unconscious at the time of the relevant act; (e) because of the complainant’s physical disability, the complainant would not have been able at the time of the relevant act to communicate to the defendant whether the complainant consented; (f) any person had administered to or caused to be taken by the complainant, without the complainant’s consent, a substance which, having regard to when it was administered or taken, was capable of causing or enabling the complainant to be stupefied or overpowered at the time of the relevant act. (3) In subsection (2)(a) and (b), the reference to the time immediately before the relevant act began is, in the case of an act which is one of a continuous series of sexual activities, a reference to the time immediately before the first sexual activity began. When looking at sections 75(2)(a) and (b) violence is not given a legal definition here but uses its normal definition. Violence is â€Å"any action using physical force intended to hurt, damage, or kill . † The one who does the act does not have to be the one that used violence in coercing the victim. In regards to section 75(2)(d) if one is asleep they then cannot give consent to the act as per R v Larter and Castleton . When dealing with section 75(2)(e) if one cannot communicate it may be due to a physical or mental disability. In regards to section 75(2)(f) if the offender knew that the substance used would render the victim ‘overpowered’ then he can be charged with rape. The conclusive presumptions found in section 76 are: (1) If in proceedings for an offence to which this section applies it is proved that the defendant did the relevant act and that any of the circumstances specified in subsection (2) exi sted, it is to be conclusively presumed— (a) that the complainant did not consent to the relevant act, and (b) that the defendant did not believe that the complainant consented to the relevant act. (2) The circumstances are that— (a) the defendant intentionally deceived the complainant as to the nature or purpose of the relevant act; (b) the defendant intentionally induced the complainant to consent to the relevant act by impersonating a person known personally to the complainant. This simply means that if the offender intentionally deceives the victim in regards to what the act is which is taken place or to who he is then the consent is not valid. Thirdly, it has to be proven that the offender did not reasonably believe that the victim consented. Consent of honest but mistaken belief is not available where â€Å"due to self-induced intoxication, there was recklessness as to consent, or where D failed to take all reasonable steps that might be expected in the circumst ances. † In the case of DPP v Morgan it was decided that a person would not be guilty of rape if they had an honest belief that the victim did indeed consent. With the Sexual Offences Act section 1(2) it is no longer as simple as that. Section 1(2) states: â€Å"Whether a belief is reasonable is to be determined having regard to all the circumstances, including any steps A has taken to ascertain whether B consents. † The offender may in fact have made an honest mistake in regards of consent but it must be decided if the mistake was a reasonable one. This is left up to the jury to determine using a subjective approach. This means that the jury must look at all the facts including the offender characteristics, thus, giving a subjective view. In conclusion, it is my belief that the Sexual Offences Act 2003 does add a greater clarity to the area of rape. When one look at the previous Sexual Acts and compare them with the current act it is easy to see the changes that has been made Not only can a biological male commit the act of rape but now a transgender individual can as well. Due to this act rape now entails oral sex and consent is given a legal definition. Section 75 and 76 of the act helps to further clarify the area of consent. Thanks to the changes made in this act the elements for rape are now more defined. ? BIBLIOGRAPHY Card, Richard (2008) Card, Cross, and Jones Criminal Law. New York, Oxford University Press Cooper v Schaub [1994] Crim LR 531 DPP v Morgan [1976] A. C. 182 Martin ,A, Elizabeth. ed)(2006) Oxford dictionary of Law. New York, Oxford University Press Office of Public Sector Information. The UK Statute law Database. 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